Class 12 History : 3 Kinship, Caste and Class

 Kinship, Caste and Class

Q1. Explain how you will prove that the text of Mahabharata was a dynamic one.

Answer : The following points prove that the text of Mahabharata was a dynamic one: 

(i) Written in Many Languages: The growth of the Mahabharata did not stop with the composition of the Sanskrit version. Over the centuries, it has been written in many languages through an ongoing process of dialogues between people, communities and those who wrote the texts. 

(ii) Several Stories: As it incorporated several stories that originated in different regions, the Mahabharata became an epic text. 

(iii) Wide Range of Themes: They also provide a wide range of themes and performing arts like plays, dance and narratives.

Q2. Explain why patriliny may have been particularly important among elite families.

Answer : Patriliny was particularly important among elite families because:

1. Inheritance of property: Under patriliny, property and wealth were generally passed from the father to his sons.
2. Continuation of family lineage: It ensured that the family name, status and lineage continued through the male descendants.
3. Political power: In ruling families, the throne and political authority were usually inherited by sons. This helped maintain control over kingdoms and territories within the same family.
4. Preservation of wealth and status: Elite families owned large amounts of land, wealth and other resources. Patrilineal inheritance helped keep these within the family.

Thus, patriliny helped elite families preserve their property, political power, social status and family lineage across generations.

Q3. In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a social contract different from the Brahmanical view of society derived from the Purusha Sukta?

Answer : The Buddhist theory of social contract differed from the Brahmanical view derived from the Purusha Sukta in the following ways:

1. Origin of society:
   According to the Buddhist tradition, society developed through a mutual agreement among human beings. People chose a ruler to maintain order and punish wrongdoers. Thus, social organisation was considered a result of human choice and agreement.
2. Brahmanical explanation:
   The Purusha Sukta explained the origin of the four varnas as divine. Brahmanas emerged from the mouth, Kshatriyas from the arms, Vaishyas from the thighs, and Shudras from the feet of Purusha.
3. Basis of social position:
   The Brahmanical system associated social position with birth and prescribed duties, whereas the Buddhist tradition placed greater emphasis on individual conduct and actions rather than birth.
4. Role of the king:
   In the Buddhist theory, people selected a ruler and agreed to give him a share of their produce in return for protection and maintenance of order. This made kingship a result of a social agreement.

Conclusion:
Thus, the Brahmanical view presented social divisions as divinely ordained, while the Buddhist theory explained social order as a human creation based on agreement, needs and actions.

Q4. Explain the duties of the Chandalas as strictly laid down in the Manusmriti.

Answer: According to the Manusmriti, the Chandalas were considered untouchables and were placed outside the social order. Their duties and living conditions were strictly regulated:

1. Living outside the village: They were required to live outside the village boundaries and were allowed to use only discarded utensils.
2. Clothing and ornaments: They had to wear clothes taken from the dead and could wear only iron ornaments.
3. Restricted movement and duties: They were not allowed to enter villages at night. They were assigned tasks such as working as executioners and disposing of the bodies of people who had no relatives.

Q5. Describe the fundamental rules of marriage as prescribed by the Brahmanical texts. 

Answer: Brahmanical Rules Regarding Marriage

1. Exogamy: Brahmanical texts encouraged exogamy, which means that a person should marry outside their own gotra or kin group. Marriage within the same gotra was generally prohibited.
2. Eight Forms of Marriage: Brahmanical texts mentioned eight different forms of marriage. The first four were considered acceptable and respectable, while the other four were condemned or disapproved of.
3. Kanyadana: Kanyadana literally means the gift of a daughter. According to Brahmanical traditions, it was considered the religious duty of the father to give his daughter in marriage to a suitable man, thereby maintaining the family lineage and social order.

Q6. Explain the concept of ‘Gotra’ and state its two main rules regarding women.

Answer:

1. Meaning of Gotra: In Brahmanical practice, people were classified into gotras, which were named after Vedic seers (rishis). Members of a gotra were considered to have descended from a common ancestor.

    2.Rule for women after marriage: i.Women were expected to give up their father’s                gotra  after marriage and adopt the gotra of their husband.

        ii. Members of the same gotra were not allowed to marry each other. Marriage was             expected to take place outside one’s own gotra. This practice is called exogamy.

Q7. Discuss whether gender differences were important in early societies regarding access to property.

 Answer:

1. Paternal Estate and Sons' Rights:

• Gender differences were crucial, as the Manusmriti explicitly stated that the paternal estate was strictly divided equally among sons, while women had no claim.

2. Women and Stridhana:

• Women were legally permitted to retain gifts received during marriage (stridhana), which could be inherited by their children without the husband having any legal claim.

3. Restrictions on Women's Wealth:

• However, women were generally forbidden from hoarding family property or personal wealth without their husband’s permission, highlighting severe economic subordination and limited independence.

Q8. Explain the complexities involved in compiling the critical edition of the Mahabharata. What did it reveal?

Answer:

1. Beginning of the Project:

• The monumental project of compiling the critical edition began in 1919 under the dedicated leadership of the eminent Sanskrit scholar V.S. Sukthankar.

2. Collection of Manuscripts:

• A massive team of scholars collaborated to painstakingly collect ancient Sanskrit manuscripts of the text from various regions across the entire Indian subcontinent.

3. Different Regional Scripts:

• These historical manuscripts were written in a wide variety of regional scripts, demanding extensive linguistic expertise to translate, decipher, and accurately compare them.

4. Comparison of Verses:

• The scholars established a meticulous method of comparing verses, ultimately selecting only those verses that appeared commonly across virtually all the manuscript versions.

5. Massive Critical Edition:

• The resulting critical edition was massive, eventually published in multiple volumes running into over 13,000 pages after nearly 47 years of scholarly work.

6. Commonality Across India:

• This exhaustive process highlighted a remarkable underlying commonality in the Sanskrit text across the vast country, from Kashmir down to Kerala.

7. Regional Variations:

• However, the project also uncovered numerous regional variations and local interpolations that had subtly seeped into the epic over many centuries of transmission.

8. Documentation of Variations:

• These complex variations were carefully documented as vital footnotes and appendices, reflecting the dynamic, evolving nature of ancient India’s rich social history.

Class 12 History Chapter 1 Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation

Bricks, Beads and Bones The Harappan Civilisation

Class 9 Science Chapter 1 Matter in Our Surroundings NCERT Solutions

 Chapter 1 

Matter in Our Surroundings

Q1. Which of the following are matter?
Chair, air, love, smell, hate, almonds, thought, cold, cold-drink, smell of perfume.
Answer: Chair, air, almonds, cold drink and smell of perfume.

Q2. Give reasons for the following observation:
The smell of hot sizzling food reaches you several meters away, but to get the smell from cold food you have to go close.
Answer: We know that, with an increase in temperature of a substance the kinetic energy of a substance increases, and hence  rate of diffusion of gas increases . 

Thus, the smell of hot sizzling food reaches you several meters away, but to get the smell from cold food you have to go close.

Q 3. A diver is able to cut through water in a swimming pool. Which property of matter does this observation show?
Answer: This shows that the particles of water have intermolecular space between them .

Q 4. What are the characteristics of the particles of matter?
Answer. The characteristics of the particles of matter are:
(1) Particles have inter-molecular space.
(2) Particles have inter-molecular force.
(3) Particles of matter are moving continuously.

Q 5. The mass per unit volume of a substance is called density.
(density = mass/volume).
Arrange the following in order of increasing density: air, exhaust from chimneys, honey, water, chalk, cotton and iron.
Answer: Increasing density:
air < exhaust from chimneys < cotton < water < honey < chalk < iron.

Question 2. (a) Tabulate the differences in the characteristics of states of matter.
(b) Comment upon the following: rigidity, compressibility, fluidity, filling a gas container, shape, kinetic energy and density.
Answer: (a) Difference in the characteristics of 3 states of matter.

Minerals and energy resources class 10

 Minerals and energy resources class 10 

 Q1. Classify metallic minerals with an example of each.

Answer : Metallic minerals can be classified as:

 (i) Ferrous: Provides a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries. e.g., Iron ore, manganese 

(ii) Non-ferrous: Plays a vital role in metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries. e.g., Copper, lead, bauxite.

 (iii) Precious: It is an expensive metallic mineral and not corroded by water. It is found in placer deposits e.g. gold, silver, platinum etc. 

Q2.  "Minerals occur in various forms". Support this statement with examples. 

Answer :  Occurrence of minerals:

 (i) In igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes. 

(ii) In most cases, they are formed when minerals in liquid/ molten and gaseous forms are forced upward through cavities towards the earth's surface. They cool and solidify as they rise. Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead, etc., are obtained from veins and lodes. 

(iii) In sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or layers. They have been formed as a result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata. For example gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt. These are formed as a result of evaporation especially in arid regions. 

(iv) Another mode of formation involves the decomposition of surface rocks and the removal of soluble constituents, leaving a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. Bauxite is formed this way.

 (v) Certain minerals may occur as allvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills. These deposits are called 'placer deposits' and generally contain minerals, which are not corroded by water. Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most important among such minerals. 

3. Describe any three features of ferrous minerals found in India.

Answer : i)Ferrous minerals in India account for approximately three-fourths of the total price of the production of metallic minerals.

 ii)They provide a strong foundation for the expansion of metallurgical industries. 

iii) India is also a leading exporter of ferrous minerals, magnetite, hematite are some of the common ferrous minerals. 

iv) Odisha, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra are the chief states where these minerals are found. 

CBSE Class 10 Chapter 1 Chemical Reactions and Equations Notes with question answer

  Chapter 1 Chemical Reactions and Equations

CHEMICAL REACTION

The process in which a substance or substances undergo change, to produce new substances with new properties, is known as a chemical reaction.

Reactants: The substances which take part in a chemical reaction are called reactants.

Products: The new substances formed as a result of the chemical reaction are called products.

Class 10 Chapter 5 Life Processes

 Life Processes 

1. Why is diffusion insufficient to meet the oxygen requirements of multi cellular organisms like humans?

Answer : Multicellular organisms such as humans possess complex body designs. They have specialised cells and tissues for performing various necessary functions of the body such as intake of food and oxygen. Unlike unicellular organisms, multicellular cells are not in direct contact with the outside environment. Therefore, diffusion cannot meet their oxygen requirements.

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Class 9 Science Chapter 11 Sound

1. How does the sound produced by a vibrating object in a medium reach your ear?

Answer: When an object vibrates, it forces the neighbouring particles of the medium to vibrate. These vibrating particles then force the particles adjacent to them to vibrate. In this way vibrations produced by an object are transferred till it reaches the ear.

2. Explain how sound is produced by your school bell.

Answer : When the school bell is struck with a hammer, it starts vibrating and as a result of these vibrations, sound waves are produced in air.

3. Why are sound waves called mechanical waves?

Answer : Sound waves are mechanical waves because they need a material medium for propagation, like air or liquids like water, or metals like silver.

4. Suppose you and your friend are on the moon. Will you be able to hear any sound produced by your friend?

Answer : No, because sound waves need a medium through which they can propagate. Since there is no material medium on the moon due to the absence of atmosphere, you cannot hear any sound on the moon.

5. Which wave property determines (a) loudness, (b) pitch?

Answer : (a) The loudness of sound is determined by the amplitude of sound waves.

(b) The pitch of sound is determined by the frequency of vibration of the sound producing source.

6. Guess which sound has a higher pitch: guitar or car horn?

Answer : Guitar has a higher pitch than car horn because sound produced by the strings of guitar has high frequency than that of car horn. High the frequency higher is the pitch.

7. What are wavelength, frequency, time period and amplitude of a sound wave?

Answer : Wavelength: The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs is known as the wavelength. Its SI unit is metre (m).

Frequency: The number of complete oscillations per second is known as the frequency of a sound wave. It is measured in hertz (Hz).

Amplitude: The maximum height reached by the crest or trough of a sound wave is called its amplitude.

8. How are the wavelength and frequency of a sound wave related to its speed?

Answer : we know that ,speed=wavelength×frequency, so this means that speed is directly proportional to the wavelength and frequency ,so if any of them increase then the speed also increases.

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